The Advancement of the Internet Technology

Information technology is said to be playing an important role in various sectors in a particular society these sectors may include the financial institutes, research institutes, learning institutions and other development sectors globally.The invention of the internet as a mode of communication has made every development successful since most of the developments require skills of using the internet and computers at large.It is therefore through the internet services provided that enhance the success of the people’s access on the present public service, library services and even marketing through the internet which globally referred to as the e-commerce.Research indicates that currently information is processed using computers and disseminated to the recipients through the internet, this internet technology is found to have improved the peoples understanding of information in many sectors of development.This idea brings in the advantage of using the internet technology to many people who are provided with material information on the electronic formats that have proved to be easy to get, revise, read and understand.Also this information is stored in large quantities which make it cheap and simple for the interested party in getting the specified to get it at once, compared to the process of going to libraries and reading a lot of books in order to get the required information (Connor, 1999)Therefore, for one to access the information provided on the internet the user is expected to enter an inquiry on the web form that is provided, after which it is sent to the web server, the web server then sends the question to the index server cluster which is meant to match the inquiry with the available documents.The match is then sent to the document server cluster that plays the role of retrieving the documents so that it can generate the abstracts and the copies of the information that is cached. Then finally the document is displayed by the web server to the use r where he is enabled to get the information required.This advancement of using the internet has basically enabled individuals to have a better access to good resources of the needed information. Research shows that by the use of computer technologies, preferable learning materials such as journals, newspapers, books and many academic articles can be obtained through the internet.This access to information through the internet is found to be the most important factor in many organisations, whereby individuals   have the sanction to store the retrieved materials using devices of storage.Such as flash disks and diskettes which enable them to retrieve and use the data easily compared to the early years where people used to keep so many books in their bookshelves and when the individual requires a particular information he was forced to through the whole lot of books s that he gets the information needed, this method actually proved to be time wasting and tiring . (Parries and Jeffay, Dec.2002)Under this technological advancement, we find that there are many developed web sites that are meant to allow many people to get access to many expanded sites that have new approaches of information regarding their area of interest.An example of these sites is the Google website, which is recognised globally and it is also said to be among the best search websites providing search services for the customers who are interested in getting particular websites; research indicates that google is the leading service provider to both the individuals and its customers applying the internet technology in their daily activities. (Knupfer and Muffoletto, 1993)  This google websites is specialised in the use of hypertexts, which is used where there have been an interest of putting the written literature into a computerised text that usually involve hypertext editing; through this we find that the text is always organised in a manner that particular initials are assigned to particula r literature matching with the users requirements for the resources According to research we find that.There are almost over two hundred thousand computer networks of the google company   which are spread all over the world, allowing many people to access it. Besides accessing files on other computers within the organization, an individual can run software located on all the computers that are enabled with the software.This therefore makes communication among the people easy and efficient, for this case we find that the hypertext matching analysis is always put in mind when the fillings of a particular information is being stored.The characteristics of a particular page such as the title, the font style and its content are proved to be very crucial in the matching of the hypertext. The other method used by google is the scalable core technology which was created with an objective of performing calculations for over ten thousand servers globally. (Knupfer and Muffoletto, 1993)Googl e has enabled its technology in finding the complex files through which the use files which do not occur by the use internet formats an example of such formats are the Microsoft word, the post script formats, rich texts among others.The services also offer a number of solutions to particular problems like the misspelling of words in the questions provided; this is actually used to enable the searching easier. (Parries and Jeffay, Dec.2002)The internet technology has brought in the use of electronic mail technique, which has brought an extreme change in the modes of communication.Here, we find that the costs that are always incurred when an individual conducting a particular research are reduced since moving round, calling through telephony technology and even writing letters to reach a person who may be having information on a particular topic of interest are avoided. The internet allows an individual to communicate to a number of people at the same time. (Connor, 1999)

Decision Making Essay

Decision making can be define as the cognitive process â€Å" resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of a action among several alternative possibillities. Every Decision Making process produces a final choice [James Reason (1990)] that may or may not promp action. Effective Decision Making is the study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision maker. Decision – making, is one of the central activities of management and is a huge part of any implemantation. For effective decision making, a person must be able to forecast the outcome of each option as well, and based on all these items, determine which option is the best for that particular situation.Human performance in decision making terms has been the subject of active reserach from several perspectives. Form a psychological perspective, it is necessary to examine individual decision in the context of a set of needs, preferences an individual has and values they seek. Form cognitive perspective, the decision making process must be regarded as a continous process integrated in the interaction with the environment. From a normative perspective, the analysis of individual decisions is concerned with logic of decision making and rationality and the invariant chioce it leads to.[Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky 2000] The ability to make wise, educated decisions is essential to living a succesful and fulfilled life. Individuals, groups or teams make decisions every day. Some decisions are very important and affect lot of people whereas other decisions are small and affect only one or two people. A decision-making process based on data leads to good decisions. A major concern in management has been to understand and improve decision making. [Isabel Briggs Myers|Myers, I.1962]. There have been two approaches to management decision making [Huber, 1980]. The first is concerned with development and application of normative decision rules based on formal logic d erived from economics or ststistics. The second involves descriptive accounts of how people actually go about making judgements, decisions and choices. [Isable B. Myers|Myers,I. (1962)].  Decision making can usually be improved by breaking a problem into parts, working on the parts separately, and then combining themm to make final decision. It has been shown in a variety of works that business decision making environment is a unity of decision makers experience, belief and perceptions on one side, and decision support tools and techniques – on the other side. In making important decisions, any info rmation sources that contain relevant important are going to be accessed and used. In this presentation we are going to show decision making process, models, and types. And explain how we can make strategic decisions in different situations. In fact in making decision in management has a significant role as Peter Drucker says 90 percent of activities in management is decision making, so we are going to discuss this important subject to show different aspect of it and find new ideas in this area research. 2.0 Decision Making Process and Steps; Decision making can be categorised as a process evaluating a problem to find solution. It is always best to strive for the best decisions? There may not be the Probably not shooting for perfect solutions cann freeze decision makers into inaction. They also might be fear of making wrong decision.When gathering data and information becomes more important than making decisions and taking action sometimes, it’s better to make decisions, risk mistakes and then learn from the mikstakes when you make them. After all, then saying isn’t â€Å"decision make perfect†, it’s â€Å"practice makes perfect†. [S. Herper (2000)] As said coca cola decision which has resluted to story suggests the extensive need for decision making in business. A management decision typically typically affects a great number of people-customer, stockholders, employers and the general public. Coca cola is accountable to more than 100000 shareholders and of extensive number of employee. Professional undertake to see the managers decision which reflected its positive returns in their revenue report.It has emphasise on the welfare of the employees and the economis health of the community in large and take into  consideration the effect to the country as whole. To strive and prosper, proffessional managers should be able to withstand the pressure and make sound decision. Companies do not want dynamics failures; they require individuals wha are properly equipped to make decisions. It doesn’t mean that the decision makers (managers) is 100 percent is accurate most of the time. They also tends to make wrong decisions most of the time at the expense of the shareholders.It does suggest that succesful managers have a higher batting average than les succesful managers. [R. Wayne Mondy (1993)] The process of decision making does not occur in tandem. The organization external environment influence the decision making process and the internal environment assist what and how the decision making should take place. For example the success of Pepsi-Cola in gaining market share while Coca Cola lost it and help to convince Goizueta that was needed. Whether a decision is programmed or none programmed and regardless of managers choice of the classical, administrative, or political model of decision making, a decision making process typically hasfive steps: 1) Idenitify the problem or opportunity 2) Develop alternative 3) Evaluate alternative 4) Choose and implement the best alternative 5) Evaluate the decision 2.1. Identify the problem or opportunity: according to Harold Leavitt, â€Å"a business leader must have thre major talents: problem solving and subsequent decision making, implementing and visionary and entreprenuel talents†. Some people view decisions making only as problem solving, however problems are best treated as opportunities. The first in the decision making process should be to look for alternatives before a decision is made. As known there is no one best decision method is exist. All problem should be treated as opportunities. Eventually, problems will make themselves  evident. All problem can be converted to opportunity. All existing problem can be corrected if managers face the problem as opportunity to progress. Managers confront a decision requirement in the form of either a problem or an opportunity. A problem occurs when organizational achievement notaccomplishment is less than establishment goals. An opportunity exists when m met as ecpectaion of an organization and exceed specified targets of an organizations. Identifying of a problem or opportunity is the first step in the decision sequence and requires survillance of the internal and external environment for issues that merit executive attention. [Richard L. Daft (2005)] Managers often search and evaluate the world around them to determine the progres of the organization .Some information comes from periodic financial reports, performance reports, and other sources that designed to discover problems before they become too serious. Managers also take advantage of informal sources. They talk to other managers, gather opinions on how things are going, and seek advice which problems should be talked. 2.2 Develop alternatives: A typical problem can be solved in various ways and method. Several alternatives is available before a decison is made. The choices that the decision maker has to decide are alternatives. A decision making process is utmost important and a feasible way to solve the a probleeThe only alternatives that really counts is the one judged best among those considered. At this point in the decision making process, however, it is important to consider all feasible ways by which the problem can be solved. Once the problem or opportunity has been recognised and analyzed, decision makers begin to consider m (opportunity). The next stage is to generate possible alternative solutions that will respond to the need of the situation and correct the underlying causes. One study found that limiting the search for alternatives is a primary csuse of decision failure in organizations. [Paul C. Nutt (1999)]. Decision alternatives can be though of as the tools for reducing the difference between the organizations current and  desired performance. Once a problem or opportunity has come to managers attention, the understanding of the situation should be refined. Diagnoses is the step in the decision making process in which managers analyzes underlying casual factors associated with the decision situation. Managers make a mistake here if they jump right into generating alternatives without first exploring the causes of the problem more deeply. [C. Kepner and B. Tregoe (1965)]. 2.3 Evaluate Alternatives: Almost all possible solutions there are advantages and disadvantages. But there maybe be only one solution for any existings problem (opportunity). It may also might not be the only best solutions for the problem (opportumity). Coca cola alienate to replace the old coke is part of an alternative decision. It is essential that managers realistically appraise arguments for or against a particular alternative. Sometimes an idea might sounds good initially, but taking time to weigh the pros and cons of alternatives usually pays off. There are number of ways evaluating alternatives. One way is to list yhe strength and weakness of the problem (opportunity). Total consideration should be given and to avoid on the strength and weakness and overall importance should be given to conclude the alternative. 2.4 Choose and implement the best alternative: an alternatives implentation is chosen once the decision of choice is established. The decision of choice is the selection of the most promising of several alternative course of action. In order to choose best alternative one has to achive the desired results using the resources.In order to make choices on managers personality factors and willlingness to accept risk and uncertainty. At this stage the use of managerial, administrative, and persuasive abilities to ensure that the chosen alternative is carried out. It also has a similirarity to the idea of strategic implementation. The ultimate success of the chosen alternative depends on the whether it can be translated into action. In the evaluation stage of the decision  process, decision makers gather information that tells them how well the decision was implemented and whether it was effective in achieving its goals. Feed back pertinent because decision making is a continous, never ending process. When an executive or board of directors votes yes or no then the decision making is not completed.The feed back provides decision makers with information that can assist to new decision cycle. What separate the succesful managers and less succesful ones is the ability to select the best course of action from several possible alternatives. The alternative offering the highest promise of attaining the objective, taking into consideration the ovearall situation, should be selected. It is an easy task but fear to make a wrong decision will make the managers to avoid making decision at all. In most organization the onus is on the managers to make decision as they are high salaried and they carry the task to make a sound decision. 2.5 Evaluate the decision: For completing a decision-making process one have to first expose to the realities of the business environment. An objective assessment required to turn the problem into opportunity and this implementation does not complete the decision making process. [R.Wayne et al (2005)] 3. Ethical Decision Making: Half of all decisions taken be managers not necessarily solev the problem after all. Most of the time they ignore ethical questions. High ethical and guideline standards needs to put into consideration before performing the management functions. When making unpopular decision such as layoffs, one has to be ethical by giving advance notice and assisting them to find a new job elsewhere or within the organization. Couple of test need to be taken to evaluate oneself, are we making the right decision or not. Firstly ask yourself, â€Å"Are there any legal restrictions or violations that will result from this action? If so, try other alternative course of action. Secondly â€Å"does it ciolate the company code of ehics?† If yes find a different path  to follow. Thirdly ask â€Å"does this mmet the guideline of my own ethical philosophy?† and if the answer is â€Å"yes†, then your decision must still pass two important test. [Gitman et al (2008) The feeling test: now you must ask, â€Å"How does it make me feel?† this will enable yourself to evaluate your comfort level in producing a particular decision. A sense of discomfort will seep in if you’ve make a wrong decision where one will loss of sleep or appetite and my go into depression. Front page of the newspaper test: the final test is the â€Å"front page of the newspaper† the question to be asked is how a critical and objective reporter would report your decision in a front page story. [Gitman et al (2008)] Decision relos: According to Mitzberg: the time managers spend obtaining and sharing information is not an end in itself. The time spent taking to and obtaining and sharing information with people inside and outside the company is useful to managers because it helps them make good decisions. According to Mitzberg, managers engange in four decisional sub roles: entreprenuer, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator. [Chuck Milliams (2 005)] 4. Decision Making Models Decision making models: primary decisions making models: the rational model and the bounded rationality model. The rational (also called the classical model), the decisio maker attempts to use optimizing, selecting and best possible alternative. In bounded rationality model (also called the administrative that meet the minimal criteria. [Robert N. Lusssier (2006)]. Making better decisions: modern research shows that managers, who make the best decisions, don’t overanalyze by relying on rational decision making model, nor do they oversimplify by relying solely on their intuition. Instead, many managers utilize a concept refered to as â€Å"recognitional decision making†. Recognition decision making leads to quicker decisions than rational decision making because it integrates the use of memory in the context of a situation in order to develop an immediate feel for the current situation. [Chuck Williams (2005)] 4.1 Classical Model: the classical model of decision model of decision making is based on economic assumptions. This model has arisen within the management literature because managers are expected to make decsisions that are economically sensible and fit the organizations’ best economic interests. The four assumptions underlying this model are as follows: 1. The decision maker operates to accomplish goals that are known and sgreed on. Problems are precisely formulated and defined. 2. The decision maker strives for conditions of certainty, gathering complete information. All alternatives and the potential results of each are calculated. Assign 3. Criteris for evaluating alternatives are known. The decision maker selects the alternative that will maximize the economic return to the organization. 4. The decision maker is rational and uses logic to assign values, order preferences, evaluate alternatives, and make the decision that will maximize the attainment of organizational goals. The classical model of decision making is considered to be normative, which means it defines how a decision maker shouls make decisions. It does not describe how managers actually make decisions so much as it provides guidelines on how to reach an ideal outcome for the organization. 4.2 Rationality: It is frequently said that efective decision making must be rational. People acting and deciding rationality are attempting to reach some goals that can not be attain without action. They must have a clear understanding of alternatives coerces by which a goal can be reached under existing circumstances and limitations. They also must have information and the ability to analyze and evaluate in light of the goal sought. In many respects, the classical model represents an ideal model of decision making that is often un attainable by real people in real organizations. It is most valuable when applied to programmed decisions and to decisions characterized by certainty or risk, because relevant information is available and probabilities can be  calculated. [Richard L. Daft (2005)]. Programmed decisions are design based on the historical data to enable all levael of managers are able to make a decision base on the same situation problems all the time. As such it can be concluded as a set of policy serve as a guideline and also act as a SOP. A non programme are made to situations that are unique, are poorly defined and largely unstructured, and ahev impportant consequences for the organizations. The decision regarding a recall at Toyota is an example of a a non programmed decision. Another good example comes from the financial services industry. Decision to to acquire a company, build a new factory, develop a new product or service, enter a new geographical market, or relocate head quarters to another city are all non programmed decisions. 4.3 Bounded rationality: The administrative model is base on the work of Herbert A. Simon. Simon proposed two concepts that were instrumental in shaping the administrator model: bounded rationality and satisficing. There are limitations to the bounded rationality or boundaries. Organizations are incredibly complex and managers have the time and ability to process only a limitated amount of information with which to make decisions. Because managers do not have the time or cognitive ability to process complete information about complex decisions. Satisficing is a decision made at the first encounter of any situation. Minimal consideration given to consider any alternative. There is no time frame on how long this process will take place. It merely rely on assumptions. 1. Organization decision goals are often not clear, exist dispute and always have disagreement among the managers. 2. Rational method are not often popular amongst managers alike and only confirned to simplistic point of view and does not get the attention of of real organization events. 3. Managers searches for alternative sre kimited because of human, information, and resources constraints. 4. All the decision makers (managers), often prefer the satisficing rather than maximizing solution, partly because they have limited information and partly because they have only unclear for what  constitute a maximizing solution. 4.4 Administrative model: This model is description are charecterized by uncertainty and ambiguity. Most of the management decisions are normally programmeable to lend themselves to any degree of qualification. The decision maker (manager) are unable to decide and economical rational decision. None programmed decisions: are used for unstructured, novel, and ill-defined situations of a nonrecuring nature. Example is the developing of the four wheel drive passenger car by Audi. In fact strategic decision, in general, are none programmed decisions. Most decisions are neither completely programmed decisions. Most decisions are neither completely programmed nor programmed none programmed: they are a combination of both. [Heinz Weihrich et al (2005)]. The administration model of decision making is based on the work of Herbert Simon. Simon proposed two concepts that were instrumental in shaping the administrative model: bounded rationally and satisfying. According to the administrative model: Decision goals are often unclear and disputing in nature and lack of consensus among managers. Managers are often not able to see the problems (opportunity) that exists in the organization. Rational procedure are not often and when they are they are confined to a simplistic view of the problem that does not captiure the complexity of real organization view. 4.4.1. Intuition: another aspect of administrative decision making is intuition. Intuition represents a quick apprehension of a decision situation based on past experience but without conscious thought. [Weston. H, Agor (1986)]. Intuitive decision making is not arbitrary or irrational, because it is based on years of practice and hand-on experience that enable managers (decision makers) to quickly identify solutions without going through pain staking computations. 4.5 Political model: is the model of decision making is often used for making none programmed decisions when conditions are uncertain, information is limited and there is often disagreement among  managers about what goals to pursue or what course of sction to take. The political model closely resembles the real environment in which most managers and decision makers operate. Decisions are complex and invlolve many people, information is often ambigous, and disagreement and conflict over problems and solutions are normal. There are four basic assumptions of the political model. Organizations are made of groups with diverse interests, goals, and values. Information is ambigous and incomplete. Managers do not have the time, resources, or mental capacity to identify al dimension of the problem and process all relevant information. Managers engange in the push and pull of debate t decide goals and discuss alternatives. Decisions are the result of bargaining and discussion among coalitio n members. [Richard L. Daft (2005)] 4.6 The Kepner-Tregoe method: this model combines the oblective approach with some subjectivity. The subjectivity comes from determining â€Å"must† and â€Å"want† criteria and assigning weighted values to them. [Robert N. Lussier (2006)]. The Kepner-Tregoe method is a technique for comparing alternative using the criteria selected in steps 2 of the decision making model.[Robert N. Lussier (2006)]. 5. Individual Decision Making and Group Decision Making Problems in any organization occurs when they were conflict of agreement of certain issues, as such one must decide who should participate to find the solution. As refering to the current trend the management favors increased employe participation. Using to group to improve decision making: according to study reported in fortune magszine. 1 percent of U.S. companies use teams and group to solve specific problem. Individuals who are highly defensive in this manner show significantly greater left prefrontal cortex activiry as measured by EEG than do less defensive individuals. ]Blackhart, G. C., & j. P. (2995)] Group decision making is critically important to meet the current fast moving organozations trends. The informal or formal group exist to reach a consensus and to  discuss a particular problem by creating a short list of acceptable alternatives or deciding on criteria for accepting an alternative. They are known as a support system and supported by electronically to support this system. [Turban, et al (2008)]. Group method invlove in decision making: It always discussed that it only involve a single manager to make a certain organization decision. This individual is responsible for the outcome of decisions under their control. Effective decisions generally combine high quality with acceptance by those affected by the decision. Group bring different resources to the decision making task. [R. Wayne et al (1993)] 5.1 Potential advantages of group decision making: The group has an advantage to make a sound decision on complex issues in comparison the individuals in a organization. Special in case of significant none programmed decision and conditions of risk or uncertainty. – More information, alternatives, creativity and innovation: Generally a group of people contains more information than an individual. Than they can more creatine and innovative. They usually have options and alternative to apply before an effective decision is agreed upon. – Greater communication to the decision: The people engange in the decision making process have greater options in increased communication to implementing the decision. And improved participation in problem solving and decision making is rewarding and personally satisfying to the people and will improve morale and motivitation. – Training. Allowing participation in decision making trains people to work in groups by developing group process skills. 5.2 Potential disadvantages of group decision making: – Wasted time – Satisficing – Domination and goal displacement: A certain sub group may dominate the group decision. Disagreement occurs when there were no 100 percent agreement from overall decision making process rather than pursuing goal of finding the best solution. – Conformity  and group thinking: Inferior feeling and disagreement might crept in before a certain agreement takes precident and the end result will be a conflict. [Robert N. Lussier (2006)]. For creating, creative alternative solutions in groups decision making there are five popular techniques: Brainstorming Synectics Nominal grouping Consensus mapping Delphi technique Brainstoming is the process of suggesting many possible alternatives without alternatives. Synectics is the process of generating novel alternative through role playing and fantasizing. Nominal grouping is the proces of generating of generating and evaluating alternatives using a structured voting method. This proces usually invloves six steps: listing, recording, clarification, ranking, discussion and voting. Consensus mapping is the process of developing group agreement on a solution to a prblem. The Delphi technique involves using a series of confidential questionnaires to refine a solution. [Robert N. Lussier (2006)] 5.3 Personal decision making: Imagine you were a manager at, GM, a local movie theater or the public library. How would you go about making important decisions that might shape the future of your department or company? As we are aware that there is number of factors may effect how a managers make efevtive decisions. For example the decisions may be programmed or non programmed, situations are charactirized by various level of uncertainty, and managers may use the classical, administrative, or political model of decision making. [Richard L. Daft (2005)] 6.0 Innovative Group Decision Making: The critical skill the managers possess to make a high quality decisions is an essential as they have to make majority of decision on their own. Is it practical for the managers make this  decision?No. The rapid face of the business enviromnment calls for just the opposite i.e, for people throughout the organization to be invloved in decision making and have the information, skills, and freedom they need to respond immediately to prblems and questions. Managers bdo make some decisions as individuals, but decisions makers more often are part of a group. Indeed majoir decisions in the byusiness world rarely are made entorely by a single manager. 6.1 Brainstorming is a method a group of people and discuss spontaneously wide range of ideas and policies before decision making. The efective brainstorming are people can be bulid on one anothers idea: number of ideas will be fielded and they will come to an consensus after wide range of ideas is discussed. It also have some drawbacks as there maybe making decision to please the superior or to impress colleagues. Studies found that when four people are asked to â€Å"brainstorm† individually. They typically come up with twice as many ideas as a group of four brainstoming. 6.2 Rigorous debate an efective decision maker (manager) always encourage a rigorous debate of a certain issues. It also recognize that constructive conflict based on divergenr points of view bring a problem into focus, clarify people’s ideas, stimulate creative thinking. Chuck Knight, the former CEO of Emerson Electric, always sparked debate during strategic planning meetings. Knight believed rigorous debate gave people a clearer picture of the competitive landscape and forced managers to look at all sides of an issue, helping them reach better decisions. 6.3 Groupthink pressures for conformity exist in almost any group, and particularly when people in a group like one another they tend to avoid anything that might create disharmony. It has tendency to surpress contrary opinions. When the group thinking mode is activated, maintaining unity will be given priority ather than realistically challenging problems and alternatives. People censur their personal opinion and reluctant to criticize the opinion of others. 6.4 Bailout in the fast paced environment managers are risk takers and learniong from  mistakes. Theyy also not hesitant to pull the plug when something not working. According to researches managers and organizations often continue to invest time and money in a solution despite strong evidence that is not appropriate. This move is knwons as escalating commitment. Managers might take initiative m to simply block or distort negative information because they do not want to be responsible to make a wrong decision. Conclusion The decision making in organizations invloves number of thories and easy to understand. The economic academician has derived methods to assist the decision makers (managers) to derive a good decision in order to avoid making bad decisions. It is very difficult to make good decisions without valid relevant information. It involves choosing between a wider process in problem solving. It can be through either an intuitive or seasoned process, or a combination of the two. There are number of stages to any structured decision making. For important decisions it is woryth always keeping a record of the steps you followed to make the decision. That way, if you n are ever critisized for making a bad decision, you can justify your thoughts based on the information and process you used at the time. Furthermore by keeping a record and enganging with the decision making process, you will be strengthening your under standing of how it works. This can make future decisions more easier for managers. References. 1. James Reason (1990). Human Error.Ashgate. ISBN 1840141042. 2. Daniel Kahneman, Amos Trversky (20000. Choice, Values, Frames. The Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521621720 3. Isabel Briggs Myers|Myers, l (1962) Introduction to type: A description of the theory and applications of the Myers-Briggs type indicator, Consulting Psychologist Press, Palo Alto Ca., (1962) 4. Martinsons, Maris G., Comparing the Decision Styles of American, Chinese and Japanese Business Leaders. Best Paper Proceedings of Academy of Management Meetings, Washington, DC, August (2001) [1] 5. Blackhart, G. C.., & Kline, J.P. (2005). Individual differences in anterior EEG asymmetry between high and low defensive individuals during a rumination/distraction task. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 427-437. 6. Drake, R.A. (1993). Processing persuasive arguments: 2. Discounting of truth and relevance as a function of agreement and manipulated activation asymmetry. Journal of Research in Personality, 27, 184-196. 7. Chua, E. F., Rand-Givanetti, E., Schcter, D. L., Albert, M., & Sperling, R.A. (2004). Dissociating confidence and accuracy: Functional magnetic resonance imaging shows origins of the subjective memory experience. Journal of Cognetive Neuriscince, 1 6, 1131-1142. 8. Selected Topics in Indeteministic System Intersystems Publications: California, (1989), p. 21 9. Richard L. Daft. New Era Of Management 10th edition, Thomson, (2005), pp 237-258. 10. Heinz Weirich and Harold Koontz. Management: A Global Perpective. 11th edition. McGrow Hill, (2005): pp144 11. R. Wayne Mondy and Shane R. Premenua. Management, Concepts, Practices, and Skills. 6th edition, Allyn and Bacon. (1993):pp116,123,128 12. Robert N. Lussier, Management Fundamentals: Concepts, Applications, Skills development, Thomson, (2005): pp 115-118,123-126,134,168. 12 13. S. Harper, Timing the bedrock of anticipatory management, business horizons, (2000):p75 14. Herbert. A Simon, The new science of management decision, harper and bow, (1960):pp5-6 15. Weston. H, Agor, the logistic of intuition: how top executives make important decisions, organizational dynamics, 14, (1986), pp5-18 16. Herbert A. Simon, Making management decisions: the role of intuition and emotion academy of management executive, (1987):pp57-64 17. James. G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organization, wiley (1958):pp22 18. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/decision-making.htmldecisionmaking 19. http://www.mftrou.com/decision-making-tool.htm.

U.S history Response Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

U.S history Response Paper - Essay Example Historically speaking, Britain had vast areas of America under its control in the 1760s. These areas served extensively to increase the wealth of the island and helped it regain some of the assets which it had lost during the wars with other European powers at the time. However, Britain overplayed its hand when it wished to have exclusive trading rights with the colonies and though that whatever was good for the empire was good for the colonies (Wikipedia, 2006). Much like a line of thought today that suggests that whatever is good for the rich is good for America. Up to the mid 1760s, many people in America considered King George to be a father figure for the colonists but the British parliament continued to enact laws which were nothing less than economic sanctions. The Sugar Act and the Currency Act are just two examples of this behavior and such acts not only made the colonists more wary of the government, they also encourage actions against the writ of the government (Marston, 2002). Common sense dictates that if a law is being ignored by everyone in sight, it should not remain a law because such conditions only lead to the lessening of the value of the law. The British government tried to enforce the law and failed, thereafter many of the laws were repealed but the damage had been done by then. The cause of the patriots had been set in motion by the British themselves since the patriots did nothing more than to react to whatever situation was presented to them. On the other hand, the Loyalists were willing to come to terms with the British government since the British offered a lot of things besides taxation. Many of the colonies were still young and depended on the strength of the empire to help them stabilize and tame the land (Gorn et. al., 2004). Of course the third option of remaining neutral was also available during the initial stages of

Starting a Business Online, Part 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Starting a Business Online, Part 1 - Assignment Example Designing of a mechanism of addressing the issues that relate to the regulations governing the operation of businesses is necessary. The online crimes also present a major challenge for most of the businesses. Therefore, this paper elucidates strategies and operations that help in the analysis and addressing various issues that relate to the e-commerce industry. A major strength is the expansion of the global market commanded by the store. It expands the geographic retail market for the clothes stores beyond the Jersey Shore boardwalk to areas all over the world. Another strength is the time-saving potential of e-commerce both for the store and the customers. It reduces the physical movement through fast internet transactions. Lastly, the e-commerce provides the customers the opportunity to compare prices and potentiate their choice of a better business deal (Mahavidyalaya, & Sharma, 2014). Security is the major challenge due to the decreased trust and integrity of the e-commerce form of trade. Furthermore, there are many websites online that are fake thus reducing the authenticity of carrying out online business by the customers (Mahavidyalaya, & Sharma, 2014). The e-commerce business will also lack the personal contact with the customers, thus causing an inability for bargaining and evaluation of customer satisfaction. The changing trends have made the customers interested in branded items through a global trade system. The number of internet users has also risen, and thus promoting the ability to reach the potential customers. The e-commerce also offers a twenty-four hour service to the customers, hence increasing the contact time with the customers. Competition from other online businesses is a major threat to the business. Competition is global, rather than local. The laws and regulations are diverse and thus they may not support the business systems in all countries. Fraud and

Chiana (Amazon) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chiana (Amazon) - Essay Example It can help in pinpointing confusions inside the systems, both about establishments and in connection to government arrangements, which can disturb in engineering improvement and development. Planning which look to enhance organizing around the performer and organizations in the framework and which point the inventive firms limit their up gradation, especially what is their capability to recognize and absorb developments, are most important in this connection. (Xielin, L, & Peng, C 2011). Here, Amazon comes with a wonderful solution of e-commerce by which betterment of technology and advancement could be performed more rapidly. Advancement in any domain comes with a better solution of quick, easy access in something which was more or less time consuming before. China is a developing country, which also welcomed this vital feature of E-commerce since a decade ago. Amazon’s entry into the Chinese market has established more technology-prone attitude among the Chinese consumers which is remarkable.Identification of main features in business environment in china: The business environment is changing altogether in developing markets particularly in China (Cohen, W.; Levinthal, D.A. 1989). A comprehension of worldwide business environment and national improvement structure is important to perform. Amazon here has faced some of the facilities and obstacles too. China is a socialist nation and it is managed by the Communist Party of China (CPC). Just the Central Committee of the Party (CCP) has the ability to settle on choice on real arrangements of an across the country character .The Chinese government has been depicted as a "ruler", with considerable limitations on the web restriction, on opportunity of discourse and on the press. The Chinese government has formed and executed stricter manages and set of accepted rules for civil servants. Amazon had to manage this situation with diplomacy to probe into the Chinese market which came with a

12 angry men movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

12 angry men movie - Essay Example The movie for nominated for three Oscars(Best Director, Best Picture and Best Writing, screenplay based on material from another medium) and finds a place in the list of all time great movies. In 2007, the library of Congress chose â€Å"12 angry men† for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. Here, we analyze the dynamics of the 12 jurors and what might have influenced them in taking a decision in favor of or against the accused. The movie begins with the scene in which the judge is seen giving instructions to a jury consisting of 12 gentlemen. The judge informs the jury that the defendant will have to take the electric chair if proved guilty. The jury is also instructed that their judgment should be unanimous. The jury then moves into the jury room where they get acquainted with the other members of the jury and start their work. The case which opens up as an open and shut case takes a turn when one of jurors (juror #8) decides to veto the decision of the other eleven jurors. He is able to convince the other jurors that the defendant should be acquitted as there is doubt beyond reasonable limit questioning the authenticity of the witnesses. However, the other jurors do not follow the juror #8 quickly. The juror #8 faces strong argument from the other members which sets up the film. The jury decided to vote 12-0 in favor of acquittal and closing scene shows the twelve jurors leaving the jury room to present their findings of fact to the court. Juror #8(Henry Fonda) is the most important character of the plot as he is the first to veto the decision and question the authenticity of the witnesses. Though the juror #8 appears both confident and nervous at the beginning, as the discussion proceeds he succeeds in making the other jurors believe in his argument that there is doubt beyond reasonable limit in declaring the boy as guilty of murder. Juror #9 immediately supports the view of juror #8. Juror #5 and #2 also follow

The Changing Role of the State amid Economic Globalization Processes Essay

The Changing Role of the State amid Economic Globalization Processes - Essay Example This paper seeks to establish the extent to which the process of economic globalization has led to changes in the role of the state. Economic globalization discourse is based on what proponents see as the ability of trade liberalization, which is the removal of cross border barriers to trade, to improve the economic development of a country therefore transforming lives of the people within a jurisdiction. Although it is widely accepted that economic globalization has affected the performance of the state, supporters argue that this should not be seen as undermining the power of the state. The most important role of the state when engaging with international stakeholders is to protect national interests The participation of the state in international arena is an important exercise that will ensure citizens are not left out from the sharing of benefits accrued from the interlinking of global economies. The state tries to engender environment, that is conducive to free flow of capital outside state borders, and making it easy for labor to flow freely from domestic to international markets. Economic globalization has led to changes in the role of the state, which is now perceived as a facilitator of economic engagements in the global markets. To benefit from new opportunities presented by the global market, states have to transform their institutions to be open to free flow of factors of production and other resources. These changes have increased the role played by non-state actors such as MNCs who now control the financial flows between states.

C task1 eval Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

C task1 eval - Essay Example Moreover, leadership skills can be utilized as a major strength in workplace, the ability to take quick decision along with setting up of the goal and objectives which will result profitable for the sensory manufacturing company in the long run. Weakness Weakness needs to be overcome as it has the potential and common ways for being a reason of business failure (Hauser, 2012). Experience team members play a major role in the success of any organization. Thus, the lack of experience in the particular field can become weakness for the organization. However, this weakness can be overcome by the efficient and hard work and focusing more on the strength to overcome the weakness. Strength includes hardworking nature, innovative thinking, and leadership skills which will help to overcome the weakness of being fresher and lead towards the success of the sensor manufacturing company. Role Each and every role of the team member is important for the success of the organization, and each of the members tends to equally contributes towards the success. ... Strengths of the team Each of the members are well versed, knowledgeable and skillful, able to take the responsibilities effectively and efficiently. The core strength lies in the fact that each of the team members’ work together in order to achieve the respective goal. When there is an achievement in the team it is shared among the team members and not only on particular individual. This formula tends to strengthen the team and make it united. In addition, with effective coordination the team will be able to achieve the desired success for the sensory manufacturing company. Adding all the strength together, it can be concluded that skillful and hardworking team members and the team at sensory manufacturing company will be able to achieve the set goal. Weaknesses of the team Different views of the team members along with the different style of working habits might lead to misbalance of working conditions. Some of the team members might not get along well with each other which in return results in the possibility to hamper the work process. This situation might be regarded as a weakness for the organization and the team itself since the internal factors affect the company as a whole. Apart from it, the company has been experiencing low financials which might also affect the effective working conditions resulting in brand weakness. The allocation of budget might not be accurate, and the marketing and promotional strategies might need to be settled in low budget resulting in low brand awareness among the customers. Interaction with the Team The company follows an open communication system with the members of the organization, and the same is followed by the team leader. The team leader follows one to one communication so that interaction between the

Apply legal principles to solving practical problems Essay

Apply legal principles to solving practical problems - Essay Example The Road Vehicle Lighting Regulations (RVLR) of 1989, which were modified subsequently in the year 1994, 1996, 2005, and in the year 2009, require all pedals of bicycles to have two reflectors on each pedal, provided that the bicycle is ridden between sunset and sunrise on a public road. The clipless pedals make it impossible to fit such reflectors, which is why this part of RVLR is not frequently enforced. However, if one rides a bicycle at night and is caught in any accident, any such illegality about the reflectors or lights is termed as contributory negligence. RLVR’s main points are: a pedal cycle must have lights and reflectors when ridden between sunset and sunrise; a cycle does not need lights and reflectors when it is stationary or is being pushed along the side of a road; the lights and reflectors, when required, should be clean as well as work properly; For a bicycle to be driven legally at night, the minimum requirements according to RLVR are the following items (J uden, 2013): Front lamp A bicycle must have one front lamp of white light that is positioned either centrally or offside at a vertical distance of maximum 1500 mm from the ground. The lamp should be visible from the front. If it can emit a steady light, the light must comply with BS6102/3 or an EC standard equivalent to that. If the lamp can only emit a flashing light, the light should be of 4 candela at least. Likewise, there are requirements for rear lights. The UK rules for cyclists oblige them to look all around before turning, manoeuvring, or riding away from the kerb so as to ensure a safe move (Gov.uk, 2013). Julie clearly did not look around before swerving into the path of the car driver. The cyclist must generate a clear signal to make other road users aware of his/her intentions. In case a cyclist cannot use direction indicator signals for any reason, or when he/she feels it compulsory to reinforce the stop lights and the direction indicator signals, the cyclist should ge nerate arm signals for turning left or right or to show that he/she wants to slow down or stop (Gov.uk, n.d.). Julie did not generate any signal either. Although Julie was riding on a country road at night, she might not be required to have two reflectors on each pedal because that condition is for driving on a public road at night, yet she needed to have steady or flashing front and rear lights anyway. By not having those lights on her bicycle, Julie did contributory negligence. â€Å"[I]f a cyclist in dark clothes goes out onto the road at night on a bike without proper lights, it’s not his fault if a driver fails to see him† (Thomas, 2012). Because of contributory negligence, it is very unlikely that Julie can get a satisfactory result if she intends to sue the car driver. Some recent court decisions in cases that were brought against the car drivers by the injured cyclists suggest that the courts are generally stricter toward the cyclists as compared to the pedestr ians in cases where the cyclists have shown contributory negligence (Blondwig, 2012). One such case is Malasi v Attmed, in which a bicycle rider jumped a red light and, without looking, rode across the junction (Blondwig, 2012). A taxi hit the bicycle and seriously injured the rider. Although the taxi driver applied the brakes after seeing the cyclist, the speed of taxi was too high for the collision to be avoided. When the cyclist sued the taxi driver to get compensation from him for the injuries that had been caused,

African american music and acculturation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

African american music and acculturation - Essay Example Despite the fact that West African music differed from one region to the other, all cultures within this region shared sufficient features that enabled them to constitute a heritage that was identifiable as African when they were trans-located to the New World (Jackson 25). From the accounts given by early traders and explorers, it has been deduced that music was a lifestyle of these West Africans. It was used to enhance rituals, worship, provide recreation, and as a means of communication. These cultures shared a characteristic feature in integrating music with dramatic elements and dance. When they were enslaved and stripped of their community and families, their rich stories, customs, traditions, and music remained with them and were passed the new generation. On arrival in the new world, they were designated as heathens and the clergymen of the time were compelled to convert the Africans to Christianity. This religious conversion acted as the first instance in which the Africans were exposed to European music with the singing of hymns and psalms (Jackson 25). They often gathered, on Sundays, to make music, sing, and dance. The first all the black worship churches were established in the 18th century with Reverend Allen Richard realizing the importance that music held for the people, publishing a hymnal for use by the Africans. These black churches provided the people with opportunities earlier denied to them, for instance the experimentation with religious music from set pieces to formal anthems and lowly spirituals (Jackson 27). The 18th century also saw the establishment of the camp meeting that was an interracial revival with all black meets being sponsored by the black churches afterwards. Camp members took to adding their own choruses or verses to traditional European hymns with the first documentation of the ring shout, an African religious dance ceremony with European infected lyrics, happening here. A number of white American writers described this ring shout in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Paul Marshall, in his description of a dance with European melodies accompanied by movement of feet that glided forward without leaving the ground (Jackson 28). To the accompaniment of European hymnals with added verses and choruses, the dancers would do a flat-footed glide that was punctuated by stamping, an African dance style. The influx of free blacks and slaves from Santa Domingo in 1804 during the Haitian Revolution carried with it the Voodoo practices. However, it is believed that these were in existence much earlier in Louisiana as an institutionalized ritual worship cult movement since there had been importation of slaves as early as the 16th century from the West Indies. These ceremonies were centered upon the worship of Damballa the snake god, also called Da, via dancing, singing, and spirit possession. One myth held by the Dahomeans held that Papa Legba was the chief of all the Voodoo gods; he became the first god to master the skill of music and that all human musicians took after him and were considered his offspring. The connections between papa legba and blues and jazz musicians have been found to be far reaching and complex (Jackson 36). In fact, there is very little doubt that Papa Legba has morphed into Pa Pa La Bas when

The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin Essay Example for Free

The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin Essay In The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin, the author tells a short story of harsh irony and a wifes realization of a new life after her husbands death. Chopin introduces the main character, Louise Mallard, as a married woman with a weak heart and a marriage that is complicated and restrictive. In the beginning of the story Louise hears the news of her husbands death in a train accident. She is distraught and filled with grief, so she goes up to her room where she sits in her comfortable armchair and thinks about how her life will change now that her husband is gone. She realizes that his death is the birth of her new found freedom. She can look forward to tomorrow and not feel imposed by his will in her activities. Yet Mrs. Mallards freedom is quickly abandoned as Mr. Mallard comes through the door. At his sight Louise succumbs to her weak heart. When the doctors came they said she died of heart disease-of the joy that kills. However the reader knows that her death is due to shattered dreams of freedom. After the initial onslaught of grief Mrs. Mallard goes to her room. As Louise sits in the armchair staring blankly out of the open window, the narrator observes that, There were patches of blue sky showing here and there through the clouds that had met and piled above the other in the west facing her window. Already, the reader recognizes the blue sky as a sign of hope emerging from a heavy gloominess. Soon the readers suspicions are confirmed as Louise sits in her armchair chanting, Free, free, free. However there were several conflicts in her life that brought her to this point. Louise felt her marriage was restrictive and at times lacking love. She was reminiscing on how difficult it was to love her husband and how demanding their marriage was. As she stares out the window she sees the positive in the negative situation. She, along with nature, has experienced new life and has been rejuvenated by the spring season. Concerning symbols, Chopin uses several throughout the story to create a feeling of comfort within the readers mind. Firstly, the armchair in the story in which Mrs. Mallard sits after hearing about her husbands death is described as comfortable and roomy. The chairs location is also  important. It is facing an open window, and this symbolizes being open to change. The fact that it is open shows that it is somewhat warm outside, suggesting life rather than the cold of winter, symbolizing death. The adjectives comfortable, roomy and sank symbolize a feeling of being embraced by the chair, a feeling of love and warmth. Secondly, through the open window Louise sees many other symbols, furthering the feeling of goodness in the reader. She sees the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life symbolizing a new life to come. The setting of a delicious breath of rain in the air refers to the calmness after a storm when the sun comes back out. The author is using this to refer to the death of Louises husband and the joyous life she will lead now that she is free of him. The Story of an Hour is both a liberating story as well as a tragic one. The author cleverly uses symbols to describe her opinion about womens rights, as well as what sixty minuets can do to a persons life. Overall though, the author does an amazing job of bringing the reader into the mind of the protagonist.

A Critical Analysis of the Policy Making Process in Public Administration Essay Example for Free

A Critical Analysis of the Policy Making Process in Public Administration Essay South Africa has changed over time and ever since the democratic elections lots of laws and policies have been changed as well. When a policy is being made it will always involve interaction between the population and the institutions that have to perform the policy making functions. Interaction takes place by means of elections, meetings between the people and officials, public opinion surveys, media campaigns, etc. No policy can be made in an disorderly manner, so if the information which is needed to decide on a new policy is not correct, no planning can be made. For example, if a policy must be made which involves the standards of schools, research surveys must be done in all the schools of the state. This must then be interpreted and evaluated correct by the person or persons doing it. 2. Public Policy In any society, governmental entities enact laws, make policies, and allocate resources. According to Cloete (1993) a policy is a declaration of intent to do something or to have it done by specified institutions or functionaries as prescribed. There are a few steps that need to be completed successfully to have a policy such as a series of decisions have to be taken, the implementation of a policy means another series of decisions, and for policy analysis another series of decisions have to be taken. Cloete (1993:80) states that the constitution is a policy statement because it declares â€Å"the action to be taken by specified institutions and office bearers who follow stated procedures and respect prescribed conduct guidelines and values for the creation and maintenance of the state. However, a policy statement is never static because of human society constantly moving and developing it causes a constant change in policy to adapt to the changing needs and expectations of the population. Public policy can be generally defined as a system of laws, regulatory measures, courses of action, and funding priorities concerning a given topic formed by government entity or its representatives. As a government action it is generally the principled guide to action taken by the administrative or executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner consistent with law and institutional customs. Schuster, 2009) Therefore, a major aspect of public policy is law, which includes specific legislation and provisions of constitutional or international law. Furthermore, Gerston (2008: 7) also states that a public policy is also the combination of basic decisions, commitments, and actions made by those who hold or influence government positions of authority. These arrangements result from interactions amongst those who demand change, those who make decisions, and those affected by the policy in question. Issues such as health, crime, education, social welfare and foreign policy can be addressed by public policy. Leaders of religious and cultural institutions can also make public policies for the benefit of the congregation and participants. I personally feel that public policies have a blend of both politics and government, and that public policies are there to address a public issue by instituting laws, regulations, decisions, or actions to control the problem at hand. 3. Public Policy Making Public policy making is a complex process that involves the interplay of numerous individuals and interest groups competing and collaborating to influence policymakers to act in a particular way. According to Cloete (1993) the term policy making should be used to refer to functions performed to obtain policies. Individuals and groups are always trying to shape public policy through education, advocacy, or mobilization of interest groups. Thus, policy making consists of the performance of a group of generic administrative processes. According to Cliffs (1987) policy making involves a number of functions to be performed namely: the identification of matters on which policies have to be made and the investigation of the matters requiring new policies or policy adaptations. When new public policies are created, there are generally three key things involved in the process: the problem, the player, and the policy. The problem is the issue needs to be addressed, the player is the individual or group that is influential in forming a plan to address the problem in question, and the policy is the finalized course of action decided upon by the government. Schuster, 2009). The general public will make the government aware of an issue through writing letters and emails, or making phone calls to local government leaders, the issue is then brought forward during government meetings and the process for creating new public policies. 3. 1Key actors in public policy making process In essence Wasby (1973: 50) states that he population plays a huge role in policy making and that is why there will always be a numerous amount of role-players in policy-making. The main categories of actors in the policy making process are official actors who have statutory or constitutional responsibilities such as legislative, executive, and judiciary. Unofficial actors have participation with no explicit legal authority such as interest groups, media. Most of the critical work on public policy is done in committees, which review legislation, propose and vote on amendments, and, in the end, decide whether a bill will die at the committee level or be elevated for consideration by the full body. Legislatures consider bills submitted to them by the political executive office-bearers. The courts have the ability to interpret legislative and executive actions: judicial review. Courts are the weakest because their authority rests on the legitimacy of the law and their ability to argue their case. Legislatures and executives initiate public policy, while courts react to the practical effects of such policies. Elected executives focus on agenda-setting, (Cliffs, 1987). The judicial system in a democratic country like South Africa has a major role in the public policy making process. All policies are formulated keeping in view the existing laws and legal provisions. According to Wasby (1973) the judiciary enters the area of policy making delivering suggestive or advisory judgments aimed at the effective achievement of the goals of the country as contained in the Preamble and the body of the Constitution. The judiciary issues directions for formulating a particular policy or changing the existing policy to suit a particular purpose. The judiciary being the sole guardian of the Constitution ensures that none of its provisions are contravened by the legislative, executive or administrative actions. Interest groups have been part of the political scene since the founding. Arrangements exist to link interest groups and public institutions to enable these groups to make regular inputs for policy-making purposes. According to Cloete (1993) political parties can play a vital role in making of policies. During elections they concentrate on weak policies of their opponents and suggest better policies for the state. Media’s primary function in policy process is agenda-setting. Media coverage correlates with institutional attention. Media also plays a very important role in educating members of the population about political and dministrative matters. Policy Making stages Grindle and Thomas offer a more interactive version of the stages model. Their central insight is that â€Å"a policy reform initiative may be altered or reversed at any stage†¦ by the pressures and reactions of those who oppose it† (1991:126). However, conflict over policy tends to center at that point in the process where a reform initiative has been agreed to in principle by decision makers somewhere in government and is moving on for further ratification and eventual implementation. Most of the heavy policy action comes after these early decision stages. A policy established and carried out by the government goes through several stages from inception to conclusion. These are Agenda-setting, Formation, Adoption, Implementation, Evaluation, and Termination. 4. 1 Agenda- setting The â€Å"agenda† is the list of subjects or problems to which government officials, and people outside of government closely associated with those officials, are paying serious attention at some given time (Rainey, 2003). Before a policy can be created, a problem must exist that is called to the attention of the government. Illegal immigration, for example, has been going on for many years, but it was not until the 1990s that enough people considered it such a serious problem that it required increased government action. Public problems will only reach the political agenda if they converted into political issues. This happens when an interest group demands government action on a problem, or when there is public disagreement over ways in which a problem should be addressed. According to Farmer (1995), the agenda- setting process narrows the set of all possible issues to the set that actually becomes the focus of attention. People rather limited capacity to seriously attend to many things at once is also characteristic of political systems, where agenda-setting is the bottleneck. Following Kingdon (1984:8), these can be conceived as three process streams- processes through which participants affect agendas such as problems, solutions and politics. Academics, for example, tend to be more involved on formatting proposals than are politicians, who seldom draft detailed policy documents. Problems Cliff (1993:7) states that problems are recognized and defined according to processes that are different from the ways in which policies are formulated and political events unfold. Many problems can also be seen either as private misfortunes for those who experience them or as public policy failures that government should address. But private problems need to be linked to public causes to attract government attention. When a young woman drops out of secondary school because of an unplanned pregnancy, for example, that may be a private misfortune. But only when women’s organisations and educators complain that adolescent pregnancy threatens the growth of skilled work force, and thus undermines economic development, does adolescent pregnancy become a problem for government that calls for government response. Only when a private misfortune is translated into a problem of educational attainment and economic growth does it become something that must concern policy makers. † Problem definition is the active manipulation of images of conditions by competing political actors. Conditions come to be defined as problems through the strategic portrayal of causal stories† (Stone, 1989). 4. 1. 2Solutions Policy alternatives are developed according to their own criteria of selection, whether or not they are solutions to recognize problems or sensitive to political considerations. Career civil servants, technocrats, academics, and policy advocates with nongovernmental organisations all play more of a role in framing of policy alternatives in Africa is further complicated by the presence of international donors, who may not share the same priorities or interests and who often do not speak with one voice. Ogden, 1971). 4. 1. 3Politics Political events flow along on their own often unpredictable schedule, whether or not they are related to problems or policy proposals. The third family of explanations for how a subject or a problem rises or falls on a government agenda has to do with politics. Developments in the political sphere can be powerful agenda-setters, for example, a change in government, a change of government ministers, a significant swing in national mood, can all move a subject onto or off of a government agenda. Politicians typically employ a calculus of political feasibility to determine whether a problem should be granted a high place on the policy agenda. 4. 2Formation In this stage policies are created and/or changed. According to Chandler (2000) policy formation means coming up with an approach to solving a problem. Congress, the executive branch, the courts, and interest groups may be involved. Contradictory proposals are often made. For example, the president may have one approach to immigration reform, and the opposition-party members of Congress may have another. Policy formulation has a tangible outcome: A bill of rights goes before Congress or a regulatory agency drafts proposed rules. The process continues with adoption. 4. 3 Adoption â€Å"A policy is adopted when a Congress passes legislation, the regulations become final, or the Supreme Court renders a decision in a case† ( Farmer,1995). This stage is also when a policy is brought into force, for example, by state or federal legislation. New or changed public policies are often adopted by means of a decision of cabinet, or an individual minister, without any legislation change. This stage includes the actions and mechanisms whereby policies are brought into practice, that is, where what is written in the legislation or policy document is turned into a reality. The content of the policy, and its impact on those affected, may be modified substantially, or even negated. A statue usually provides a broad outline of a policy. For example, Congress may mandate improved water quality standards, but Environmental protection agency (EPA) provides the details on those standards and the procedures for measuring compliance through regulations. According to Rainey (2003) the Supreme Court has no mechanism to enforce its decisions; other branches of government must implement its determinations. Successful implementation depends on the complexity of the policy, coordination between those putting the policy into effect, and compliance. For example, the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education, the justices realized that desegregation was a complex issue; however, they did not provide any guidance on how to implement it. Here, implementation depended upon the close scrutiny of circuit and appeals court judges, as well as local and state school board members who were reluctant to push social change. Dye indicates that implementation involves all of the activities designed to carry out the policies enacted by the legislative branch. These activities include the creation of new organizations and departments, agencies, bureaus, and the assignment of new responsibilities to existing organizations. These organizations must translate laws into operational rules and regulations. They must hire personnel, draw up contracts, spend money, and perform tasks. All of these activities involve decisions by bureaucrats and decisions that determine policy (Dye, 2005). One critical aspect of policy implementation is the high degree of discretion afforded to the bureaucrats and agency procedures to transform laws into action as outlined by Dye above. 4. 4. 1 Challenges and pitfalls of policy implementation Theodoulou and Kofinis identify three key challenges which they believe can routinely impede the effective implementation of public policy. Those three challenges are: 4. 4. 1. 1 Clarity of policy goals Clear policy or program goals help specify the ends or objectives desired from the policy action. Ideally, policies should be formulated with consideration of what the actual specific goals of the policy are goal stated with clarity and specificity not only provides direction but also improves the basis by which policies can be evaluated, for accountability, efficiency, and effectiveness (Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, p183). 4. 4. 1. 2 Information intelligence Information intelligence refers to the strategic necessity for constant feedback as to how implementation is progressing, as well as the preliminary assessments of impacts. Given the increasing reliance on multiple bureaucracies, information and feedback is essential to gauge the degree of interagency and intergovernmental cooperation and conflict, which may be affecting implementation. Information intelligence requires a high level of communication and feedback not only from the agencies involved but also from the population affected by the policy action. According to Ogden (1971) when they are terminated, it is usually because the policy became obsolete, clearly did not work, or lost its support among the interest groups and elected officials that placed it on the agenda in the first place. In 1974, for example, Congress enacted a national speed limit of 55 miles per hour. It was effective in reducing highway fatalities and gasoline consumption. On the other hand, the law increased costs for the trucking industry and was widely viewed as an unwarranted federal intrusion into an area that belonged to the states to regulate. The law was terminated in 1987. . Conclusion It is clear that policy making is not a task that can be undertaken by a single institution. Numerous private and public institutions must work together to ensure the well-being of the population. Policies cannot stay the same year in and year out. Changing circumstances demand constant evaluation of the existing policies. The top officials’ must take the lead in evaluating and proposing policy changes. It is therefore very important for Directors- General of state departments and town clerks to evaluate the results of their work and to inform their supervisors about needs for policy change.

Benefits of Sustainable Water Management in Bangladesh

Benefits of Sustainable Water Management in Bangladesh Food security and surface water management has become a critical need in Bangladesh because of growing demand of food and water. With vision of enhancing food production and employment generation, Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) Bangladesh gets involved at local level surface water management in 1962. As an apex public organization, LGED performs overall planning and management of surface water at local level by confirming people participation. With past experience, LGED started participatory Small Scale Water Resources Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP) in 1995 and built about 580 sub-projects where stakeholders involvement in decision making process has become an integral part of sustainable development in surface water management. The purpose of the paper is to explore the potential contributions of sustainable surface water management in socio-economic development through food production and employment generation at the rural level. It reviews relevant external secondary data sources and internal SSWRDSPs which include sub-project based field data obtained for formulation, implementation, and performance evaluation of SSWRDSPs. Primary sources included extensive field visits, household survey and sub-project beneficiary and Water Management Cooperative Association (WMCA) interviews. Transcripts of field visit, field notes, and relevant literature are analyzed on the basis of themes, patterns and datas of interrelationships among those that addressed the research goal. To ensure true reflection, quantity and quality of data gets highest degree of priority. It is found that well-designed management of surface water resources is vital and essential in ensuring food security and rural employment. 1. Introduction Peoples in the developing countries are in emergency of essentials—food and water, shelter, energy and health although the scenario is quite opposite in the developed nations where the people are facing the difficulties of affluence (Roome, 2002).To attain the food demands of 2050, food production is needed to increase by 3 times. Historically agricultural production is the most suitable way of food production and only that can provide better diets for the people all over the worlds (Avery, 2002).To meet the controversy on the sustainable way of food production this paper tried to established that the participatory approach in surface water management is the most sustainable way of using surface water to increase agricultural production as well as the food production for the future. Now, sustainable food production as well as food for everyones is a global demand. A rising population of Bangladesh with declining agricultural land has put the countrys future food security at risk, especially when salinity in the coastal belt, and droughts and depleting underground water level in the north have become constant realities (Palma, 2010). According to a projection of the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics the countrys population will be 170 million by 2020 (BBS, 2001; Population Council, 2010). Bangladesh currently has 8.44 million hectares of cultivable land, according to the Ministry of Agriculture. With 1 percent decrease of arable land due to building of new houses, industrialization, and urbanization the cultivable land area will come down to a little more than 7.0 million hectares in 2020 (MoA, 2007a). Bangladesh had to import nearly 2.0 million tons of food grains in the last fiscal year on top of around 30 million tons of rice and wheat produced domestically (Palma, 2010). These factors might lead to a decrease in productivity as was projected by the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007). Though presently the situation of food security appears quite satisfactory, but the scenario was significantly different in past and also its future may not look the same due to increasing population and climatic changes. In 1971-1972 the area under rice production was 9,278.00 thousand hectare and the production was 9889.20 thousand metric ton (BBS, 2008). Due to different initiatives by the government through different organization such as Department of Agriculture Extension (DAE), Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) and the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) cultivable areas and production increasing day by day such as in 2005-2006 the rice production areas augmented into 10, 529.09 thousand hectare and the production increased into 24, 569.27 thousand metric ton (MoA, 2007b; BBS, 2008). Past experience can be argued that those achievement due to better surface water management preservation and use of surface water, training of farmers to address the depletion of underground water. Otherwise, it was and will be difficult to ensure food security for the ever increasing population (Palma, 2010). However, it is stated that Bangladesh faces some significant challenges in the next century. A combination of population growth, a reduction of arable land and the increasing living standards, will place pressure on food and water security in the country (Khoo, 2010). Brundtland commission (1987) stated that the sustainable food production is the production which should meet the needs and desire of the people without negotiating with the natural resource for the next generation (Roome, 2002). In this light, Participatory approaches in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) for agriculture can be focused as the most sustainable eco-friendly farming as well as sustainable surface water management and food production system. The soil and Water Conservation Society of America stated that the Agricultural farming through surface water management is the most sustainable food production method as it has a unique capability of keeping the soil fertile without remarkable erosion by integrated management system (Avery, 2002). More steps for sustainable food production can be taken as the food production system does not create any negative impact on the environment (Heap, 2002). Moreover, in the face of rapidly changing national, regional and global ec onomic environment, Bangladesh agriculture is facing the challenge to reinvent itself to withstand competition and at the same time continue to provide food and employment opportunities for the vast majority of the population (MoA, 2006). 1.1 Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) and its Involvement The Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), whose origin dates back to the Rural Works Programme (RWP) initiated in the early 1960s, developed rapidly throughout the 1980s and 1990s. RWP was a component of the Comilla Model of rural development pioneered by the famous Aktar Hamid Khan at Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development (BARD) nationwide this was started in the early 1960s (Rahman, Rahman Rahman, 2007). In 1982 RWP switched to the Works Programme Wing (WPW) under the Local Government Division (LGD) of the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development Co-operatives (MoLGRDC) (MoLG, 1982). Subsequently the administrative decentralization act of 1982 converted it into the Local Government Engineering Bureau (LGEB) in 1984 (MoLGRDC, 1984). With the needs for rural infrastructure development in the country and the readiness of LGEB to take on more responsibilities, LGEB was upgraded as the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) in August 1992 (LGD, 1992). It is widely recognised that the role of infrastructure in economic development is significant and often greater than that of investment in other forms of capital (World Bank, 1994). Mujeri (2002) argues that rural infrastructure including irrigation structure play an important role in the socio-economic development of rural areas. Rural works Programme (RWP) and the Thana Irrigation Programme (TIP) and micro-finance have been seen as two interrelated sub-strategies for achieving poverty alleviation (MoLGRD, 1979; MIP, 1998). Comilla Model tried to integrate these two strategies and considered that the breakdown of the interrelationship between the RWP, the TIP and the co-operative would result in undermining of the whole rural development effort through the Comilla experiment (Sen, 1996). With mission and vision of Comilla model of A.H. Khan, LGED got involvement in escalating food production and facilitating food marketing through surface water management by excavating/re-excavating drains and canals, digging new canals, repair and construction of bunds and embankments, reclamation of land for productive purpose, repair and construction of bridges, repair and construction of earthen and pucca roads meant for irrigation and communication in the name of Works Programme and Thana Irrigation Programme (GoEP, 1962). The TIP program gave responsibility to the Union Parishad (UP) members to find out available surface water resources to plan for utmost irrigation coverage by Low Lift Pumps (LLPs). UP members formed project committees under the RWP to re-excavate irrigation canals for better agricultural production (GoEP, 1962). With the same objectives as of TIP, LGED started Canal Digging Programme (CDP) in 1979 initially on voluntary basis and later on with the assistance from Food for Work (FFW) to de-silt sediment filled channels all over the country to boost-up water storage capacity of channels for irrigation. The CDP aimed to increase irrigation water supply, drainage improvement, tree plantation on canal bank and fisheries development. The program implemented 3,276 km of khal re-excavation, 429,597 pond re-excavation projects and 382 hydraulic structures. The benefited area covered under CDP was about 419,500 hectares (IWRMU, 2008). In parallel to CDP, under Rural Employment Sector Programme (RESP) funded by SIDA and NORAD, LGED initiated development of small-scale water resources schemes to increase agricultural as well as food production and rural employment generation in 1986 and the programme was continued up to 1996 (MPIUS, 1998). The project implemented 60 small-scale schemes in six districts (Kurigram, Faridpur, Rajbari, Madaripur, Gopalgonj and Shariatpur). IDP covered about 20,530 hectares of cultivated land benefiting 51,230 farm families (RESP, 2000; IWRMU, 2008b). LGED has performed excellently in implementing the rural infrastructures in collaboration with local users to increase food production and consequent employment generation (Faruqee Choudhury, 1996). With an aim to provide dry season irrigation facilities by using surface water in increasing rice and non-rice crops production especially in the coastal belt LGED first implemented two rubber dams in Coxs Bazar District in 1995 on a pilot basis. Inspired by the success of the pilot projects, the Government considered rubber dams for wide replication and, consequently, construction of more rubber dams was taken up all over the country. LGED has constructed eleven more rubber dams in 1999-2007 (DoAE LGED, 2005) and started to construct 10 more rubber dams in 2009-2014. Participatory irrigation management and OM have been adopted for the rubber dam projects (DoAE LGED, 2009). 2. Objectives To surface the initiatives of the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) in food security and employment generation through surface water management with participatory approach. To present the state of the art of the participatory surface water management process in sustainable socio-economic development by increasing crop as well as food production and thereby employment generation in the rural areas of Bangladesh 3. Methodology A detailed and systematic approach was followed to achieve the objectives of this study using two methods. First a broad review of external secondary data sources associated with the topic that included water and food production, irrigation, gender and development, employment generation, surface water management etc. and internal SSWRDSPs which includes the sub-project based field data obtained for formulation, implementation, and performance evaluation of SSWRDSPs were made. Pre-project data were compiled from sub-project appraisal reports while the monitoring and evaluation data were drawn from the Management Information System (MIS) unit of IWRMU, LGED and various project reports. Field information was fetched through befitting exercise supported by the SSWRDSPs and the IWRMU of LGED collected the post-project data after completion of the projects. Methodology of the study also involved two tier exercises. Firstly, information of the pre-status of the sub-projects areas were drawn from relevant published materials and field records and secondly the post-status of the sub-project areas from data obtained from MIS unit. Primary sources included extensive field visits, household survey and sub-project beneficiary and WMCAs interviews. Field workers of Non Governmental Organisation (NGO) were involved in the surveys and interviews. As the author is a fulltime employee of LGED and posted in the IWRMU as a Senior Assistant Engineer (Operation and Maintenance) and also in-charge MIS unit of IWRMU of LGED, got opportunity to involve in every steps of sub-project implementation cycle. Transcripts of field visit, field notes, and relevant literature were analysed on the basis of themes, patterns and datas of interrelationships among those that addressed the research goal. 4. Small Scale Water Resources Development Sector Projects of LGED Taking lessons from the performances of the earlier water resources development projects, LGED facilitates sustainable use of water resources with the participation of local stakeholders along with Local Government Institutions involving public and private sectors, communities and individuals in the implementation of Small Scale Water Resources Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP) to improve the socio-economic condition that includes food production and employment generation. The Project is implemented in conformity with the National Water Policy (NWP) that stressed integrated water management. The NWP has defined the role of the Local Government Institutions and given the mandate of implementing flood control, drainage and irrigation (FCDI) projects having command areas of 1,000 ha or less to increase the food production and employment generation (MoWR, 1999). The NWP states that water resources management requires involvement of the public and private sectors, communities and indiv iduals that benefit from the delivery of water-related services. Because, the ultimate success and effectiveness of public water resources management projects depends on the peoples acceptance and ownership of each subproject / project (MoWR, 1999). The first project was in the name of Small Scale Water Resources Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP) (1995-2002). The project aimed at sustainable growth in agricultural production as well as food production and incomes of about 140,000 farm families in western Bangladesh through the establishment of about 300 small-scale water resources development schemes (LGED, 1995). The phase-1 of SSWRDSP finally completed 280 subproject covering 165,000 hectares of cultivates land that benefits 142,000 farm families in 37 districts (IWRMU, 2008c).The main objectives of the Second Small-Scale Water Resources Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP) are to enhance agriculture and fish culture and to take effective steps in poverty alleviation through improving the surface water resources in different regions of the country (Rahman, Rahman Rahman, 2007). With the success and gathered experience from SSWRDSP-1 LGED started the 2nd phase of SSWRDSP covering larger areas in 61 districts of the country in 2003(LGED, 2001). The 2nd phase of the project is completed in 2010 (LGED, 2010a) and implements 300 sub-projects all over the country covering 163,000 hectares of cultivates land that benefits 154,000 farm families. The 3rd phase is started in 2010 in the name of Participatory Small Scale Water Resources Sector Project (PSSWRSP) and implementing throughout the country with an aims to develop 300 new sub-projects and for rehabilitation of 160 existing sub-projects (LGED, 2010b). It could be mentioned that another Small Scale Water Resources Development Sector Projects funded by JICA also implementing by LGED from 2008 covering 15 districts of greater Mymensingh, Sylhet and Faridpur having a plan to implement 300 sub-projects (LGED, 2010c). In implementing these projects, LGED is very much careful about participatory water management pro cess (MoWR, 2000). It has developed a very innovative framework of participation for addressing local peoples views in development initiative in water sector (LGED, 2009). The local people participate in all stages of the project cycle- identification and feasibility, design and institutional building, construction and first year OM (Operation Maintenance), sustainable O M and their participation is formulized through forming a Water Management Cooperative Association (WMCA) in each sub-project. After completion of the sub-project, the WMCA takes the responsibility of operation and maintenance of the subproject infrastructure (LGED, 2009). Capacity building of WMCAs is another important aspect of the project. Line agencies of the government imparted training to the WMCA members for their capacity building and LGED has signed memorandum of understandings with the agencies concerned (MoWR, 2000). Moreover LGED ensure the stakeholder participation to make the project effective and su stainable development as the interests of the community promotes a convergence among the government, development partners and other stakeholders, is considered as a key strategic step for sustainable investment (FAO, 2010). Monitoring of the completed 580 Sub-projects of the SSWRDSP shows increasing trend in cereal and non-cereal crop as well as food production. The increased crop/food production is due to increased cropping intensity in the subproject area and that intensity generates more employment in respective area. Evaluation of the project has been done by different agencies at different time. Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) and WL I delft hydraulics, the Netherlands jointly evaluated the project. In addition Implementation Monitoring and Evaluation Division (IMED) under Ministry of Planning Bangladesh also evaluated the project and their findings are very much positive. In general, the evaluation agencies concluded that SSWRDSP has shown a very encouraging development in developing Socio-Economic conditions that includes food production and employment generation in the Sub-project area (BUET, BIDS delft hydraulics, 2 003; IMED, 2005). The project follows a participatory approach of implementation where local people play vital role in all stages of the project cycle. 5. Framework of participation The overall participatory process in subproject development adopted by the LGED is a combination of two parallel but interrelated processes: â€Å"Institutional† involving software elements and Technical involving hardware elements Sub-project implementation is participatory and the whole cycle of subproject development process is sub-divided into four distinct stages as presented below (Figure-1) (LGED, 2009). Stage 1: Identification and Feasibility In consultation with local stakeholders, the Union Parishad (Council) kicks off sub-project proposals. The LGED Upazila Engineer submits it to the Upazila Development Coordination Committee for approval. If approved, the proposal is forwarded to the Integrated Water Resources Management Unit (IWRMU) and to the Project Management Office (PMO) through the LGED Executive Engineer at the district level. IWRMU pre-screens the proposal during a multidisciplinary field reconnaissance. This is followed by (i) Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and (ii) Feasibility Study (FS). Each subproject is reviewed and approved by District Level Inter-Agency Project Evaluation Committee (DLIAPEC). Stage 2: Design and Institution Building Following the approval of DLIAPEC, engineering design and establishment of Water Management Association (WMA) are done along with motivational awareness campaign among stakeholders. Process of establishing WMA is initiated under the legal framework of the Cooperative Societies Act (National Parliament of Bangladesh, 2001). Contracted NGO facilitator creates awareness, generates local enthusiasm in the local water resource systems, promote membership enrolment, assist in collection of beneficiary contributions, and conflict resolution. The WMA is registered with the Department of Co-operative (DoC) and becomes WMCA. The IWRMU undertakes engineering design work in consultation with stakeholders and discusses for their approval. This process concludes in the signing of a formal implementation agreement by the WMCA, Union Parishad and LGED Executive Engineer at district level before tendering for the works or contracting Labor Contracting Societies (LCS). To sign the implementation agree ment, the WMCA must have achieved (i) enrolment of at least 70% of beneficiary households; (ii) collection of beneficiary contributions equivalent to an annual OM requirement and deposited in a joint account by LGED and the WMCA; and (iii) approved plans in consultation with people-affected by the environmental mitigation and resettlement (land acquisition) (MoWR, 2000). Stage 3: Construction and First Year OM Civil works are tendered to contractor and earthworks awarded to LCS groups comprised of local landless, disadvantaged destitute males and females. The WMCA supervises construction through a 7-member committee trained on construction monitoring including one man and one woman from the concern Union Parishad (LGED, 2009). The WMCA forms OM sub-committee and prepares schedule, beneficiary list and maps, and plan comprising operating guidelines, and maintenance and resource mobilization plans. The IWRMU provides on-the-job training that helps WMCA to (i) undertake annual inspection, (ii) identify maintenance needs, (iii) prepare and implement annual OM plan, and (iv) collect OM fees. After observation of the infrastructures management performance during the first year of OM, the sub-project is handed over to the WMCA through a formal lease agreement with LGED (ADB LGED, 2009). The WMCA receives support of agricultural extension and fisheries departments to prepare agriculture and fishe ries development plans and to organize training for WMCA representatives who work as liaison extensions to beneficiaries (ADB, 2008). Stage 4: Sustainable Operation and Maintenance This stage starts after sub-project handover and continues throughout its lifetime. Continuous monitoring and support is provided by the IWRMU of LGED and other partner agencies. The WMCA and O M Committee receive regular training so that they are able to carry out O M of the sub-project. The WMCA Prepare O M Plan, Undertakes routine maintenance works and collects O M fees from direct beneficiaries in proportion to their land area benefited by the sub-project. (LGED, 2009) 6. Participation ‘Participation was first advocated in the context of development authorization in the 1950s due to failed development policies which were thought to lack integration of public concerns throughout their planning. Thus, participatory methods were encouraged as fundamental measures of development. In this process marginal groups (poor, women, indigenous and ethnic minorities) should come together with project authorities to share, negotiate and control decision-making processes (Lisk, 1981; WB, 1985). In each subproject of the SSWRDSP of LGED the organization in the name of WMCA is formed. The WMCAs play basic role to functionally represent beneficiaries in all processes of the sub-project cycle. The stakeholders participation is assessed by institutional and OM activities in the sub-project area. Institutional activities: Institutional activities are assessed by WMCAs functions. These include membership, beneficiarys contribution, capital formation and use and holding of meetings in each subproject. These are monitored quarterly through Upazila level Community Organizers (CO) and district level Socio-economist. WMCAs progress on institutional activities and their capability development in 580 subproject areas as monitored in December 2010 are as follows: WMCA membership: The WMCAs provide an excellent means to address the needs of a range of special interests. The membership in 580 WMCAs consists of 183,831 males and 70,723 females from an estimated total of 297,300 households. Average membership covers about three-forth of the total households. Women all over the world play an active role in agriculture, thus contributing to food security (IFAD, 2007). The WMCA members include marginal, small, medium and large farmers; landless; women and fishers. Women comprised one-third of the first management committee of each of the WMCAs and about 25% of the total membership as the National Policy for Womens Advancement, provides a significant commitments of the Government to equality of women and men which are also reflected in the national poverty reduction strategy that emphasizes the importance of womens rights and opportunities for progress in the battle against poverty (GoB, 2009; ADB, 2010). Each WMCA members elect a Management Committee with at least o ne-third women members. The Management Committee is supported by OM, agricultural, fisheries and credit management subcommittees. Regular Management Committee Meeting and Annual General Meeting are conducted by the WMCAs. Beneficiaryscontribution: the beneficiaries contribution construction of infrastructure in 580 sub-projects amounted (US$1,190.141) of which 89% was collected from the farmers beneficiaries of the water resources development. WMCA capital: These WMCAs have established a capital base in all sub-projects through shares and savings by the members. In 580 sub-projects, the capital accomplished well in excess of Tk 129.82 million (US$1,829). The capital is being used in supporting micro-credit, procurement of agricultural inputs, and other small-scale business enterprises operated by the individual WMCA. WMCAs have set up micro-credit programmess and have loaned to 26,900 male and 12,937 female members. The average size of each loan is about Tk 2,500 (US$ 366). Since the capital formation the cumulative investments of the WMCAs is Tk 110.1 million (US$1.55 million). The DoC inspects and audits the accounts of the WMCAs. The WMCA members have increased their income with investment of micro-credit on quality seed production, poultry farming, milking cow, beef fattening, vegetable production, aquaculture, seasonal crop storage, and grocery shops. WMCA capability development: The WMCAs members are given training to increase their capability in institutional management, capital formation, credit management, sustainable agricultural and fisheries production, improved farm practices, environmental management and subproject OM. Relevant departments and institutes support the project in training need assessments, course development, materials preparation and organisation. LGED has signed memorandum of understanding with the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), Department of Cooperatives (DoC), Department of Fisheries (DoF) and Department of Livestock Service (DLS) to support the subproject beneficiaries (LGED, 2006). The DoC supports subproject WMCAs in institutional strengthening and financial management. Field level official of DAE, DoF and DLS support the sub-project farmers and fishers in the preparation and implementation of agricultural and fisheries production plans and use of improved technologies. This has created opportunity for the integratio n and complementary of support services provided by the government departments and sustainable water resources uses for food production with the formation of cooperatives in the sub-projects areas. Three approaches are adopted to provide training to the WMCA members that included beneficiary farmers, fishers and women. The first approach is to identify and communicate with existing relevant programmes and to ensure that WMCA members have access to these programmes. The second approach is that where a need for a new programme is identified, the Project develops the material, testes it by conducting a number of programmes, and then transfers the training material to an appropriate institution. As an example, this is the approach used in establishing management training for the WMCA at the Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development. A third approach is used especially for new programmes. The Project works with the relevant institution to jointly prepare the curriculum and training materi als. The training is then delivered by that institution and further developed based on feed-back from participants and monitoring systems. This approach is used in the training delivered by the DAE Agricultural Training Institutes. General improvements during the course of the Project attributable to training impact were observed, in the nature of the institutional support provided to the local stakeholders, in the type of agriculture practiced within the Project area, in aquaculture, and in homestead food production patterns. All of these activities are imparted and monitored by IWRMU LGED. Operation and maintenance (OM)activities: The sub-project beneficiaries prepare annual OM plans and budget and mobilise local resources for the OM costs. LGED initiated extensive training programs for the WMCA OM sub-committee members to perform regular OM for the completed sub-project handed-over to them. The OM sub-committee is responsible for the preparation of annual plan and collection and utilization of funds for OM. Annually each WMCA collects OM fund from the farmers at the rate of 3.0% and 1.5% of the total cost for the subproject earthworks and hydraulic structures, respectively (ADB, 2008; ADB LGED, 2009). Table 1: Operation and Maintenance (O M) Budget (Taka-million) Budget 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 Subprojects No. 233 254 260 289 331 297 372 580 Contribution of GOB 2.99 7.39 15.89 20.48 22.25 24.39 30.73 47.5 Voluntary Labor Contribution 0.41 1.12 2.06 2.53 3.32 3.49 4.19 5.94 Total Collection (Taka) 3.4 8.51 17.95 23.01 25.57 27.88 34.92 47.5 % of voluntary contribution 12.1 13.2 11.5